EN

Teaching is the practice of transmitting skills, knowledge, and values to others.

Teaching Aptitude is the ability to teach and facilitate learning effectively.

T-L Model of Teaching: The T-L model of teaching is a depiction of the teaching and learning environment, including the behavior of teachers and students while the lesson is presented. Teaching is “triadic” in nature i.e. it involves 3 core elements which are — 1. Teacher 2. Student 3. Subject matter.

Some Important Points to note that: Teaching and learning are integrally related acts. Teaching is a Social Act while Learning is a Personal Act. Teaching cannot take place without learners while a learner can learn even without a teacher.

EN

Competency is more than just knowledge and skills. It involves the ability to meet complex demands by drawing on and mobilizing psychosocial resources (including skills and attitudes) in a particular context.

Personality and attitude Competencies — Locus of Control and Self-Efficacy, Logical, Clear, Confident and Enthusiastic.

Behavioral or Work-Related Competencies — Planning and Teaching, Managing (Organizing), Monitoring, and Communicating, Evaluating (Controlling) and Providing Feedback.

Phases of Teaching: Teaching is completed in three phases. Pre-Active Phase — planning stage of teaching before entering the classroom. Interactive Phase — the actual stage of teaching, where the teacher gives feedback and motivates students. Post-Active Phase — after completion of the class the teacher evaluates the learner’s performance.

Substantive Competencies — Subject Knowledge, Literacy Levels.

Style Related Competencies — Dynamism and flexibility, Organized and Orderly.

Social Competencies — Empathy, Social Skills.

Personal Competencies — Self-awareness, Self-Regulation, Motivation.

EN

Effective teaching is the knowledge, strategies, processes, and behaviors that lead to good student outcomes.

Effective Teaching Behaviors: There are two types of behaviors that lead to Effective Teaching — 1. Key Behavior 2. Helping Behavior.

5 Key Behaviours of Effective Teaching

Lesson clarity: The lesson should be conveyed in a clear step-by-step order, they should be uncomplicated and with minimal distractions.

Instructional variety: Use of a variety of teaching tools (technology, materials, activities etc). Use of variation in voice and gestures.

Teacher task orientation: To maximize the time spent teaching prevent distracting behavior, organize lessons well.

Engagement in the learning process: Keep a daily schedule to minimize confusion among students and give independent work that is interesting.

Student success rate: For a better success rate, the content should reflect prior learning, with easy-to-grasp steps for the new material.

5 Helpful Behaviours

Using student ideas and contributions: Teachers should acknowledge student responses.

Structuring: Teachers should give organized lessons of what is to come and summarize what has been taught.

Questioning: Use a variety of questions that require more thinking and problem-solving.

Probing: Getting students to elaborate on their ideas.

Teacher affects: Develop the teacher-learner relationship by the use of enthusiasm and empathy.

Cognitive Apprenticeship: A cognitive apprenticeship focuses on bringing internal thought processes into the open so they can be observed and learned by students. It is a relationship in which an expert stretches and supports a novice’s understanding of and use of cultural skills. The theory is broken into six teaching methods.

Scaffolding: Scaffolding is an instructional practice where a teacher gradually removes guidance and support as students learn and become more competent. It is a technique to provide the right kind of support in the right amount at the right time to increase a child’s competence.

EN

A teaching support system is a combination of tools and resources that help teachers improve the effectiveness of the teaching-learning process. The goal of a teaching support system is to maximize student achievement. It has two types — traditional and modern.

Traditional TSS (Teacher-centered) — A teacher-directed method, the chalk-and-talk method, a whiteboard.

Modern TSS (Learner-centered) — Brainstorming, group discussion, study through ICT etc.

Mind/Concept Map: A mind map is a visual diagram that organizes information into a hierarchy. It’s often created around a single concept, with associated representations of ideas such as images, words, and parts of words added.

Brainstorming: A group problem-solving technique that involves generating new ideas and solutions. It can be done individually or in a group.

Think-Pair-Share: A cooperative learning activity in which the instructors pose a question, and students first think to themselves and discuss their response with a person sitting near them.

Fishbowl Technique: Students are separated into an inner and outer circle. In the inner circle, students have a discussion; students in the outer circle listen to the discussion and take notes. Good for developing listening as well as speaking skills.

Buzz Group Method: Small groups of 2-3 participants discuss a specific question. Since the small groups produce a buzzing sound while discussing, this method is known as a buzz group.

Gamification: Transforming the classroom environment and regular activities into a game. It requires creativity, collaboration, and play.

Flipped Classroom: Structured around the idea that lecture or direct instruction is not the best use of class time. Students encounter information before class, freeing class time for higher-order thinking activities.

The Jigsaw strategy: Asks a group of students to share specific knowledge with another group of students, helping them understand and retain information while developing collaboration skills.

Cybernetics: Means to navigate the system to the desired goal through feedback. In the classroom, teaching-learning is a system and the goal is the success of the learner and the learning process.

EN

The level of teaching generally comprises three levels: Memory level (Thoughtless teaching), Understanding level (Thoughtful teaching), Reflective level (Upper thoughtful level).

1. Memory level of teaching: It is the first and thoughtless level of teaching, considered the lowest level of teaching. At this level, the focus is on drills and remembering and recalling facts and information.

2. Understanding level of teaching: Understanding something is to perceive or comprehend the meaning. At this level, students are taught with positive and negative examples. The teacher tries to clarify the relationship between facts and concepts. Students are encouraged to elaborate their answers in their own words.

3. Reflective level of teaching: The term ‘reflective level’ is indicative of the highest level of thoughtfulness on the part of the teacher as well as the learner. At this level, cognitive and critical thinking is encouraged and teaching is done through problem-solving and discussions.

EN

Teaching: Seeks to impart knowledge and aims to develop critical and creative thinking in the learner.

Training: Intended to develop abilities through disciplined drills or a patterned behavior conducted by the teacher to promote organized ideas.

Conditioning: Associative presentation of ideas from teacher to students that are similar or dissimilar, resulting in change in behavior through habit formation by reinforcement.

Instruction: Provides step-by-step directions so another can complete a task. It also has an active interchange (give and take) of ideas between teacher and students.

Indoctrination: One-way imposition of ideas from the teacher to the students leads to establishing beliefs and values which eventually leads to a change in attitude.

EN

Models of teaching are really models of learning designed to help students acquire knowledge, information, ideas, skills, values, and ways of thinking. It is a description of the learning environment including teaching behavior.

Pedagogy, Andragogy and Heutagogy are often presented as a continuum. As the learner matures, they transition from pedagogy to andragogy, and finally to heutagogy.

Pedagogy (Children’s Learning): The learner is dependent while the teacher takes the entire responsibility to lead the learning. Hence, it is a teacher-centered approach.

Andragogy (Adult’s Learning): The learner has more independence while the teacher acts as a facilitator or guide. Hence, it is a student-centered approach.

Heutagogy (Self-directed Learning): The learner is motivated to satisfy the need for competence while the instructor only sets outcomes and provides guidance and formative feedback.

EN

Teaching methods are the principles, pedagogy, and management strategies used to instruct students in a classroom. They help students understand and remember what they’ve learned. There are two types of methods of teaching.

Teacher-centered Method: The teacher is the sole leader, presenting information to the students, who have limited responsibilities and are expected to passively receive the knowledge being presented.

Lecture Method — The teacher communicates their knowledge in the form of a presentation, like a university lecture, while the students take notes.

Chalk and talk — Teaching by traditional methods focusing on the blackboard and presentation by the teacher, as opposed to more informal or interactive methods.

Demonstration — Teaching method used to communicate an idea with the aid of visuals such as flip charts, posters, PowerPoint, etc.

Team teaching, also known as collaborative teaching or co-teaching, is an instructional strategy where teachers work together regularly.

Learner-centered (Inclusive/Group) Method: Views learners as active agents. Students are encouraged to collaborate and share their unique experiences and perspectives according to their interests. Teachers work as facilitators of learning and recognize that all learners are unique. It has several types:

Active learning, in which students solve problems, answer questions, formulate questions of their own, discuss, explain, debate, or brainstorm during class.

Cooperative learning, in which students work in teams on problems and projects under conditions that assure both positive interdependence and individual accountability.

Inductive teaching and learning, in which students are first presented with challenges. Includes a heuristic method, inquiry-based learning, case-based instruction, problem-based learning, project-based learning, discovery learning, activity-based scaffolding, and just-in-time teaching.

Authoritative Teaching Style (Balanced, Structured but Supportive): The teacher is firm but fair and maintains high expectations in a supportive environment. Outcome: Students become responsible, self-motivated, and confident.

Authoritarian Teaching Style (Strict, Controlling, Teacher-Centered): The teacher is highly controlling and enforces strict discipline. Outcome: Students become obedient but may lack creativity and critical thinking.

Laissez-Faire Teaching Style (Minimal Control, Passive Students): The teacher takes a hands-off approach with little structure or direction. Outcome: Students become passive, unmotivated, or even disruptive due to lack of guidance.

Democratic Teaching Style (Participation, Cooperative Learning): The teacher balances structure and student input, encouraging active participation. Outcome: Students become engaged, independent thinkers, and cooperative learners.

EN

Direct vs. Indirect Teaching is basically teacher-centered vs. student-centered learning in action.

Direct Teaching Methods (Explicit Instruction): The teacher leads the learning in a clear, structured, step-by-step way. Information is taught directly, not discovered. It is dialogic — lectures, demonstrations, drill & practice, tutorials, group discussions, Q&A sessions, offering practice and feedback.

Teacher’s role — Leader, explainer, content expert. Student’s role — Listener → guided practice → independent practice.

Best for — Teaching new concepts, basic skills (math procedures, grammar rules, lab techniques), beginners who need structure.

Strengths — Efficient, clear expectations, good for large groups. Weaknesses — Can feel passive, less critical thinking, too much reliance on teacher.

Example — A math teacher shows how to solve quadratic equations step-by-step, then students solve similar problems.

Indirect Teaching Methods (Inquiry-Based Learning): Students learn by exploring, questioning, and discovering ideas and build concepts themselves with the help of their own experiences. It is simulation and role-playing based — case studies, problem-based learning, research projects, Socratic (inquiry-based) questioning.

Teacher’s role — Facilitator, guide, question-asker. Student’s role — Active thinker, problem-solver, collaborator.

Best for — Developing critical thinking, real-world problem solving, higher-level understanding, older or more advanced learners.

Strengths — Deep understanding, encourages independence, improves communication skills. Weaknesses — Takes more time, not ideal for total beginners.

Example — Instead of explaining climate change directly, students analyze data, discuss causes, and propose solutions.

EN

Bloom’s Taxonomy: In 1956, Benjamin Bloom with collaborators published a framework for categorizing educational goals which comprised three learning domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor, and assigned to each of these domains a hierarchy that corresponds to different levels of learning.

Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised: In 2001, one of Bloom’s original collaborators and co-editor published a revision to the 1956 hierarchy. This new revised version introduced a key change to the cognitive domain of Bloom’s Taxonomy.

EN

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who contributed significantly to the understanding of children’s cognitive development.

Cognitive Development Theory: Piaget argued that children’s cognitive development occurs in stages.

The sensorimotor stage (0–2 Years) is the first phase of children’s cognitive development. During this stage, children primarily learn about their environment through their reflexes, senses, and motor activities.

At the age of two, children enter the preoperational stage (2–7 Years), where their ability to use mental representations, develop language, and begin to use symbols to represent objects.

The next phase is the concrete operational stage (7–11 Years), which begins around the age of seven. During this stage, children are more capable of thinking logically about concrete problems.

At the age of 11, children enter the formal operational stage (11 Years and Later). Abstract thought characterizes this stage. Children can think about abstract concepts and can think hypothetically and deductively.

EN

Lev Vygotsky: L. S. Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist.

Social constructivism Theory: Based on the idea that learners construct new knowledge. The constructivist method is composed of at least five stages: inviting ideas, exploration, proposition, explanation and solution, and taking action.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Emphasizes that learning occurs through social interaction and collaboration. It is defined as the space between what a learner can do without assistance and what a learner can do with adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.

EN

Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning: Pavlov identified a fundamental associative learning process called classical conditioning. Classical conditioning refers to learning that occurs when a neutral (conditioned) stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus (unconditioned) that naturally produces a behavior.

BF Skinner’s Operant Conditioning: A method of learning the uses of rewards and punishment (reinforcements) to modify behavior. Through operant conditioning, behavior that is rewarded is likely to be repeated, and behavior that is punished will rarely occur.

EN

Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups through which students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. It is related to collaborative learning, which emphasizes that learning occurs as an effect of community.

Key elements of Cooperative Learning Theory: Positive interdependence, individual and group accountability, interpersonal and small group skills, face-to-face promotive interaction, group processing.

Jigsaw Method 🧩 — Each student in a group is assigned a different piece of the topic to research. They become the “expert” on their part and then teach it to their group.

Think-Pair-Share 💬 — Students think about a question individually, pair up and discuss their thoughts, then share their answers with the whole class.

Team-Pair-Solo 🎯 — Students first work on a problem as a team, then in pairs, and finally individually. Helps transition from group work to independent learning.

Peer Teaching (Expert Groups) 🎓 — Each student masters a part of the lesson, then teaches their section to their classmates.

Round Robin 🔄 — Students take turns contributing ideas in a group, going around in a circle. Encourages equal participation and brainstorming.

Fishbowl Discussion 🐟 — A small group of students discusses a topic in an inner circle (the “fishbowl”), while the rest observe and take notes.

Numbered Heads Together 🧠 — Each student in a team gets a number. The teacher asks a question, the group discusses, and the teacher randomly calls a number to answer.

Rally Coach 👥 — Students work in pairs to solve problems. One solves while the other coaches and checks, then they switch roles.

Talking Chips 🎟️💬 — Students use chips to take turns speaking, encouraging equal participation in group discussions.

EN

Memory consists of recalling a past experience that has been retained in the mind. Memory consists of learning, retention, recall, and recognition.

Remembering — Learning consists of perceiving facts, repeating perceptions of them and forming associations in the mind.

Retention — When we learn a lesson repeatedly with attention, it leaves a subconscious trace in the mind in the form of a mental disposition.

Recall — The fact of retention can be proved by a recall. We can recall those things which we learn and have retained in the mind.

Recognition — The feeling of familiarity that accompanies the revival of past experiences.

Types of Memory: There are four types of memory — sensory, short-term, working, and long-term memories.

1. Sensory Memory: Allows you to remember sensory information after the stimulation has ended.

2. Short-term/Immediate memory: Allows you to recall specific information about anything for a brief period.

3. Working memory: A temporary holding and processing of information to accomplish complex cognitive tasks such as language comprehension, learning, and reasoning — the information you are focusing on at a given moment.

4. Long-term Memory: The unlimited storage of information for long periods, even for life. There are two types: declarative or explicit memory and non-declarative or implicit memory.

Explicit (Declarative) memory — Memories we consciously and deliberately took time to form and recall. Episodic (Incidental) Memory is formed from particular episodes in your life. Semantic Memory is general facts and bits of information you absorbed over the years.

Implicit (Non-Declarative) Memory — Unconscious memories, such as certain abilities or skills. Of four types: Procedural memory (motor and executive skills needed to perform a task), Associative memory (storage and retrieval through association with other information — Classical Conditioning Effects), Non-associative memory (newly learned behavior through repeated exposure to an isolated stimulus), Priming (exposure to one stimulus influences how someone responds to a later stimulus).

EN

Memory consists of recalling a past experience that has been retained in the mind. Memory consists of learning, retention, recall, and recognition.

Remembering — Learning consists of perceiving facts, repeating perceptions of them and forming associations in the mind.

Retention — When we learn a lesson repeatedly with attention, it leaves a subconscious trace in the mind in the form of a mental disposition.

Recall — The fact of retention can be proved by a recall. We can recall those things which we learn and have retained in the mind.

Recognition — The feeling of familiarity that accompanies the revival of past experiences.

Types of Memory: There are four types of memory — sensory, short-term, working, and long-term memories.

1. Sensory Memory: Allows you to remember sensory information after the stimulation has ended.

2. Short-term/Immediate memory: Allows you to recall specific information about anything for a brief period.

3. Working memory: A temporary holding and processing of information to accomplish complex cognitive tasks such as language comprehension, learning, and reasoning — the information you are focusing on at a given moment.

4. Long-term Memory: The unlimited storage of information for long periods, even for life. There are two types: declarative or explicit memory and non-declarative or implicit memory.

Explicit (Declarative) memory — Memories we consciously and deliberately took time to form and recall. Episodic (Incidental) Memory is formed from particular episodes in your life. Semantic Memory is general facts and bits of information you absorbed over the years.

Implicit (Non-Declarative) Memory — Unconscious memories, such as certain abilities or skills. Of four types: Procedural memory, Associative memory, Non-associative memory, Priming.

EN

Metacognition refers to the awareness and understanding of one’s thought processes. It involves thinking about how we think and learn and using this awareness to manage and improve our cognitive activities.

Planning (Organizing): Deciding on the strategies to use and organizing how to approach a task. Includes setting goals and deciding how to allocate resources and time.

Monitoring: Observing and assessing one’s own understanding and performance during the task, being aware of one’s cognitive processes and making adjustments as needed.

Evaluating: Reflecting on the outcome after completing the task — assessing effectiveness of strategies used, determining what worked well or poorly, and planning future improvements.

KWL Charts: A graphic organizer with three columns — What I Know, What I Want to Know, and What I Learned.

Concept (Mind) Maps: Visual diagrams that show relationships between concepts or ideas.

Self-Assessment Rubrics: Criteria-based tools where students evaluate their own work or performance against set standards.

Peer Review: Students evaluate each other’s work and provide feedback.

EN

What is Learning: Learning is a continuous process through which a person acquires knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors. In other words, learning is selecting the appropriate response and connecting it with the stimulus.

Important Characteristics of Learning: Continuous – Happens throughout life. Progressive – Develops step by step over time. Goal-oriented – Usually directed toward improvement or solving problems. Based on experience and practice – Learning grows through interaction with the environment. Results in change in behaviour – This change can be in thinking, emotions, or actions.

Learning Progression Steps: Learning develops in stages from basic understanding to creativity.

Recall of facts and information — Remembering learned material such as definitions, dates, formulas, or concepts. The foundation of learning.

Explain ideas or concepts — Understanding and describing information in one’s own words. Shows comprehension.

Use information in new situations — Applying knowledge to solve problems or handle unfamiliar tasks.

Draw connections — Relating ideas, comparing concepts, identifying patterns and relationships. Encourages deeper thinking.

Produce new work — Creating original ideas, projects, or solutions using learned knowledge. The highest level of learning.

Factors Influencing Learning: Learning is affected by several internal and external conditions.

1. Socio-economic and Historio-cultural Factors — Family income, education level, and resources. Cultural values, traditions, and social expectations. Language background and social environment.

2. Heredity — Inherited traits such as intelligence level, physical abilities, and temperament.

3. Mental Health — Emotional stability, stress levels, anxiety, or depression affect concentration and memory.

4. Attention — Ability to focus is essential for understanding and retaining information.

5. Readiness — Learning occurs best when the learner is physically, mentally, and emotionally prepared.

6. Fatigue — Physical or mental tiredness reduces concentration, memory, and performance.

Gender Bias: Refers to unequal treatment or expectations based on gender. Stereotypes like “boys are better at math” or “girls are better at languages.”

Effects: Limits confidence and participation. Affects subject choice and career paths. Can reduce academic performance due to low self-belief.

How to Reduce Gender Bias: Use gender-neutral language. Encourage equal participation. Provide equal opportunities in all subjects. Challenge stereotypes in teaching materials.

EN

A learner is someone who is willing to learn and understand new things. Learning is the process of understanding and acquiring knowledge of new things and concepts.

Individual Differences in Learners: It is important for teachers to know variables such as physical characteristics, intelligence, perception, gender, ability, and learning styles.

Conventional learning (Passive Learning): Involves a mentor or teacher, a confined facility, and a group of students that meet together at a fixed time. Follows the trend of testing knowledge through exams.

Situated learning: A theory that explains how people acquire professional skills. Involves students in cooperative activities that challenge their critical thinking and kinesthetic abilities.

Assisted Learning: A learning process based on both individual study of educational materials and guidance on the subject matter by the tutor/trainer.

Collaborative Learning (Active Learning): Involves pupils working together on activities or learning tasks in a group small enough to ensure that everyone participates.

Latent Learning: A type of learning that is not immediately apparent. It occurs without obvious reinforcement of the behavior or associations learned — it remains hidden until there is a need to use it.

Adolescent vs Adult Learners: Adolescent learners bring enthusiasm, curiosity, and energy, while adults bring life experience and their own ideas and opinions.

Field-Dependent and Field-Independent Learners: Field-dependent people are better at learning social material in a social way. Field-independent people are less reliant on structure and more self-motivated.

Learning curve: A graph that shows how quickly someone learns something over time, and how much progress is being made.

Learning Plateau: A term for physical, mental, attitude, and emotional exhaustion of an individual due to intensive involvement in work for a long period of time.

Learning to Learn: Focused on the skills, knowledge, and attitudes associated with the learning process and how individuals learn best.

Learner Behavior: Entering Behavior — describes the student level before instruction begins. Terminal Behavior — the desired final behavior shaped by a training or learning process.

Personal vs social competence: Personal Competence — Self-Awareness, Empathy, Self-Regulation, Motivation. Social Competence — Empathy, Social Skills.

EN

Self-regulated learning (SRL): A broad concept involving students using a set of skills to manage their learning environment and process. SRL is guided by metacognition, strategic action, and motivation to learn.

Cycle of SRL — Analyzing the task: Identify the skills and knowledge you need to learn. Setting Goal: Set goals for what you want to learn. Devising plans: Include specific steps, resources, and time frame. Enacting tactics and strategies: Breaking tasks into smaller steps, using mnemonics, practicing regularly. Regulating learning: Monitoring progress, adjusting the plan, and staying motivated.

Transfer of Learning: Refers to the application of knowledge, skills, or abilities learned in one context to a different but related context.

Positive Transfer: Learning in one situation enhances performance in another. Example: Learning sitar can positively affect learning guitar.

Negative Transfer: Learning in one context hinders performance in another due to confusion. Example: Someone used to driving on the left struggles driving on the right.

Zero transfer: Learning in one context has no effect on performance in a different context.

Near Transfer: Applying learned skills to a situation very similar to the original context. Example: Using school math skills for budgeting or shopping.

Far Transfer: Applying skills to a situation quite different from the original context. Example: Applying physics problem-solving to business strategy.

High-road transfer involves deliberate, conscious application of skills to new situations, requiring effortful reflective thinking.

Low-road transfer refers to automatic, often unconscious application of well-practiced skills to familiar situations.

EN

Academic Characteristics: Describe a learner’s performance in school tasks, including achievement level, study habits, participation, and motivation.

Social Characteristics: Relate to how learners interact with peers and adults, including communication skills, cooperation, and relationship-building.

Emotional Characteristics: Involve feelings, self-confidence, emotional control, and resilience.

Cognitive Characteristics: Concern thinking abilities such as memory, attention, reasoning, and problem-solving.

Physical Characteristics: Include health, energy levels, sensory abilities, and physical development.

Behavioral Characteristics: Observable actions such as self-discipline, responsibility, and ability to follow rules.

Cultural Characteristics: Stem from a learner’s language, beliefs, values, and family background.

Technological Characteristics: Refer to access to digital tools and the ability to use technology effectively.

Personality Characteristics: Include traits like introversion or extroversion, curiosity, persistence, and independence.

EN

Intelligence is the ability of an individual to learn, understand, reason, solve problems, think abstractly, and adapt to new situations. Characteristics: ability to learn from experience, logical reasoning, problem-solving ability, adaptability, abstract thinking.

Factors Influencing Intelligence: 1. Heredity (Genetic Factors) — children inherit mental capacities from parents, setting the upper limit of intelligence. 2. Environment — home environment, school environment, socio-economic status, culture, nutrition and health, peer group.

Creativity is the ability to produce new, original, useful, and meaningful ideas or solutions. Mainly related to divergent thinking, where multiple solutions are possible.

Difference Between Creativity and Intelligence: Intelligence focuses on accuracy and correctness, mostly using convergent thinking aimed at one correct answer. Creativity focuses on innovation and imagination, using divergent thinking which allows many possible answers. Intelligence is measured through IQ tests; creativity through tests of fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration.

Motivation is the process that energizes, directs, and sustains behavior.

1. Intrinsic Motivation: Comes from within the learner — learning for interest or enjoyment, leading to deep and long-term learning. Examples: curiosity, love of learning, satisfaction.

2. Extrinsic Motivation: Comes from outside rewards — learning for marks, prizes, or praise. Examples: grades, rewards, punishment avoidance.

Self-Efficacy vs Self-Esteem: Self-efficacy is a person’s confidence in their ability to perform a specific task successfully (“I can do this”). Self-esteem refers to a person’s overall feelings of self-worth or value.

Ability and Willingness: Ability is the skill, knowledge, or capacity that enables a person to perform a task. Willingness refers to the desire, interest, or motivation to perform a task. Both are essential for effective learning.

EN

Formative evaluation is a type of evaluation that assesses the development or progress of a course to improve its effectiveness. It is done during the learning period to provide feedback to students as well as teachers so necessary changes can be made. For Example — Tests, Quizzes, discussions, etc.

Summative (Impact) Evaluation is a type of evaluation that occurs at the end of a learning period. It assesses students’ learning and provides a final grade for performance. More reliable than formative evaluations, and formal in nature. For Example — Semester exams, Board Exams, Final Grades, etc.

EN

Criterion-referenced testing (CRT): Assessments designed to measure a student’s performance against a fixed set of criteria or learning standards. The score is independent of how other students perform. Defined in Percentage.

Norm-referenced testing (NRT): Compares a student’s knowledge or skills to the knowledge or skills of the norm group, determined by comparing scores against a selected group of test-takers. Defined in Percentile.

EN

Diagnostic Test: Primarily used to diagnose students’ difficulties and to guide lesson and curriculum planning.

Prognostic Test: Acts as a means of estimation and prediction of the future career.

Aptitude Test: Designed to assess what a person is capable of doing or to predict what a person is able to learn or do given the right education and instruction.

Achievement Test: A test of developed skill or knowledge.

Authentic assessment: Where students thoughtfully apply their acquired skills in real-life situations.

Ipsative assessments: Evaluate an individual’s performance or traits in relation to their own previous performance. Focus on personal progress and growth.

Peer evaluation: An effective collaborative learning strategy that asks students to reflect on contributions made by colleagues in group work. An innovative approach to evaluation systems.

EN

LMS: A learning management system is a software application for the administration, documentation, and delivery of educational courses, training programs, materials, or learning and development programs. Common LMS platforms — MOODLE, Canvas, Schoology, Edmodo, LearnDash, OpenedX, Course Builder, etc.

MOOCs: Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) are free online courses available for anyone to enroll in.

EN

SWAYAM (Study Webs of Active Learning for Young Aspiring Minds): This MOOC platform was initiated by the Government of India and developed indigenously by AICTE in 2017 to achieve three cardinal principles of Education Policy — access, equity, and quality.

The courses hosted on SWAYAM are in 4 quadrants — (1) video lecture, (2) reading material, (3) self-assessment tests, (4) discussion forum for clearing doubts.

A ‘SWAYAM’ course is classified based on the engagement of the number of weeks and the number of video hours.

In 2021, the University Grants Commission (UGC) gave the nod to institutions to allow up to 40% of the total courses in a particular program in a semester to be offered via the SWAYAM platform.

National Coordinators of SWAYAM

EN

SWAYAM PRABHA is an initiative of the Ministry of Education to provide 40 (recently updated) High-Quality Educational Channels through DTH (Direct to Home) across the length and breadth of the country on a 24×7 basis using the GSAT-15 satellite.

SWAYAM PRABHA has new content every day for at least (4) hours, repeated 5 more times in a day, allowing students to choose their convenient time.

The channels are uplinked from BISAG, Gandhinagar, and maintained by INFLIBNET. The contents are provided by NPTEL, IITs, UGC, CEC and IGNOU.

Courses Provided by CEC-UGC

Courses provided by IGNOU (11–16): Social Sciences and Humanities · Basic and Applied Sciences · Professional Education · Open Universities and Gyandarshan · Capacity Building and Teacher Education · Skill and Vocational Education.

Courses provided by IITs (17–25): Biotechnology & Biochemical Engg, Electronics & Communication Engg, Electrical Engg, Physics (all IIT Bombay) · Textile Engg, IIT PAL (IIT Delhi) · Civil Engg (IIT Gandhinagar) · Aeronautical Engg, Humanities & Social Sciences (IIT Kanpur).

EN

Swayam Prabha is a group of 40 DTH channels devoted to telecasting high-quality educational programmes on a 24X7 basis using the GSAT-15 satellite. Every day there is new content for at least (4) hours, repeated 5 more times in a day. The channels are uplinked from BISAG-N, Gandhinagar. Content is provided by IITs, UGC, CEC, IGNOU, UoH. The INFLIBNET Centre maintains the web portal.

BISAG-N: Bhaskaracharya National Institute for Space Applications and Geo-informatics is an Autonomous Scientific Society that undertakes technology development & management, research & development, and facilitates national & international cooperation, capacity building and technology transfer in geo-spatial technology.

INFLIBNET: Information and Library Network Centre, Gandhinagar, is involved in modernizing university libraries in India using state-of-the-art technologies for optimum utilisation of information.

EMRC: Educational Multimedia Research Centre — centers established by the UGC to produce educational content using electronic media and ICT.

Swayam Prabha Channels

EN

LMS: MOODLE, Canvas, Schoology, Edmodo, LearnDash, OpenedX, Course Builder, Blackboard Learn, Nearpod.

Mindmapping Software and Websites: Miro, Coggle, MindMeister, X Mind, Mindomo, C Map, Popplet.

Animation Video Maker: Plotagon, Animaker, Powtoon.

Online Conferences: Big Blue Button, ZOOM, Microsoft Teams, Google Meet.

Interactive video Making: Edpuzzle (video), Canva (Pictures), Flip, Screen Casetify, Screencast-o-matic, Camtasia (Video editing).

Online bulletin board: Padlet, Wakelet.

Creating Interacting Quiz, surveys: Kahoot, Quizizz, Poll Everywhere, Google Forms, Mentimeter (Live), Hot Potato, Slido, Straw Poll, Survey Monkey.

Google Products: Google Meet, Google Docs, Google Classroom, Google Form.

Book and Library creating: Book-creator (Interactive), Koha (Library).

Virtual Class: Classcraft, Google Classroom, Edmodo (Social Networking), Labster (Lab).

Language Learning: Duolingo.

FOSSEE — Free/Libre and Open Source Software for Education.

Interactive whiteboard software: Jamboard, Stormboard, Conceptboard.

Interactive Teaching and Learning Material: Genially, Learningapps.org, Interacty, H5P, Educaplay.

Presentations: Google Slides, Prezi. Project Management: Trello. Research (Lab) Simulation: PhET, Labster. Collaboration: Google Docs, Seesaw.

EN

NPTEL — National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning is a project of MHRD initiated by seven IITs (Bombay, Delhi, Kanpur, Kharagpur, Madras, Guwahati, Roorkee) along with IISc Bangalore in 2003, to provide technical education to anyone interested in learning.

GyanDarshan: Launched by MHRD, Information & Broadcasting, Prasar Bharti, and IGNOU jointly on 26th January 2000 as an Educational Television Channel of India, a 24-hour transmission channel covering a variety of subjects.

Gyanvani: Commenced broadcasting on FM 105.6 channel from June 2001, in association with IGNOU, New Delhi.

Gyandhara: An internet audio counseling service offered by IGNOU, allowing students to interact with teachers/experts via telephone, email, and chat.

DigiLocker: An Indian digitization online service under the Digital India initiative, aiming to strengthen ‘digital empowerment’ by providing access to authentic digital documents, deemed at par with original physical documents.

National Academic Depository (NAD): A 24/7 online storehouse of academic awards — certificates, diplomas, degrees, mark sheets, etc.

E-ShodhSindhu: Gives academic institutions affordable access to electronic resources (peer-reviewed journals, bibliographic databases), formed by merging UGC-INFONET Digital Library Consortium, NLIST, and INDEST-AICTE Consortium.

Shodhganga: A digital repository of Indian theses and dissertations submitted to universities in India.

ShodhGangotri: An initiative of UGC, MHRD, and INFLIBNET asking universities to deposit electronic versions of approved synopses submitted by PhD scholars.

Shodh Shuddhi: Gives HEIs access to plagiarism detection software (PDS), launched by the Ministry of Education in September 2019.

E-VIDWAN: A database of profiles for scientists, researchers, and faculty members at leading Indian institutions.

DIKSHA: A national digital platform for school education, providing digital textbooks, teacher training, lesson plans, assessments, and interactive learning resources.

Krishi Darshan: One of India’s longest-running TV programs, launched by Doordarshan in 1967, to educate farmers about agricultural techniques, schemes, weather, and crop patterns.

PM eVidya: A comprehensive initiative launched by the Ministry of Education in 2020 under Atma Nirbhar Bharat Abhiyan, integrating DIKSHA, TV channels for classes 1–12, radio, podcasts, and DTH, aiming for “One Nation, One Digital Platform” and “One Nation, One Channel”.

e-Gyankosh: A digital repository by IGNOU for free access to self-learning material for open and distance learning.

e-Yantra: An IIT Bombay initiative supported by the Ministry of Education, focused on robotics and embedded systems education.

e-Kalpa: A project under the National Mission on Education through ICT, developed by IIT Bombay’s Industrial Design Centre, for digital design education.

PG Pathshala: A UGC and INFLIBNET initiative providing high-quality e-content for postgraduate courses.

Academic Bank of Credit (ABC): A digital academic credit storehouse under NEP 2020, allowing students to deposit, transfer, and redeem credits for multiple entry/exit options.

FOSSEE: An IIT Bombay project promoting open-source software like Scilab, Python, and OpenFOAM in education.

IMPRINT-2: A joint initiative of the Ministry of Education and DST to fund research in technology and engineering for affordable innovation.

GIAN: A 2015 scheme bringing international faculty and experts to teach in Indian institutions, promoting academic collaboration.

NROER: A platform by NCERT and CIET providing free access to school-level learning resources like videos, interactive materials, and maps.

e-SARAS: An online self-learning and self-assessment system offering interactive content and digital resources.

e-Granthalaya: Software by NIC to automate and network libraries, creating digital libraries and e-catalogues.

Saransh: A CBSE web portal helping schools and parents analyze student performance through academic reports.

Sakshat: A one-stop education portal by the Ministry of Education, offering e-content, virtual labs, scholarships, and online resources.